INTRODUCTION
One
of the most important schools of philosophy of education is pragmatism.
Pragmatism stands between idealism and materialism a sort of compromise. Its
origin can be traced from the Sophists philosophers of ancient Greece who held
that man is the measure of all things.
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The
term pragmatism derives its origin from a Greek word meaning to do, to make, to
accomplish. So the use of words likes ‘action’ or ‘practice’ or ‘activity’.
Action gets priority over thought. Experience is at the centre of the universe. Everyone is
tested on the touch-stone of experience. Beliefs and ideas are true if they are
workable and profitable otherwise false. Will Durant sums up pragmatism as the
doctrine that truth is the practical efficiency of an idea. It follows there
from that pragmatism is not a philosophy but a method–the method of
experimentation. As a basis for school practice pragmatism opposes
pre-determined and pre-ordained objectives and curriculums. The past of the
pragmatist is dead.
Values are instrumental only. There are no
final or fixed values. They are evolved and are not true for all times and for
all situations. According to an undeviating standard of worth, pragmatism tends
to be individualistic, selfish; has no values; has no ethics and is thus superficial.
1. HUMANISTIC PRAGMATISM-
This
type of pragmatism is particularly found in social sciences. According to it
the satisfaction of human nature is the criterion of utility. In philosophy, in
religion and even in science man is the aim of all thinking and everything else
is a means to achieve human satisfaction.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PRAGMATISM-
Modern science is based upon experimental
method. The fact that can be ascertained by experiment is true. No truth is
final, truth is known only to the extent it is useful in practice. The
pragmatists use this criterion of truth in every field of life. The human
problems can be solved only through experiment.
3. NOMINALISTIC PRAGMATISM-
When
we make any experiment we attend to the result. Our aim is examination of the
material. Some hypothesis about the results invariably precedes every
experiment. According to nominalistic pragmatism, the results of an experiment
are always particular and concrete, never general and abstract.
4. BIOLOGICAL PRAGMATISM-
Experimentalism
of John Dewey is based upon this biological pragmatism according to which the
ultimate aim of all knowledge is harmony of the man with the environment.
Education develops social skill which facilitates one’s life. The school is a
miniature society which prepares the child for future life.
PRINCIPLES OF PRAGMATISM
1. PLURALISM-
Philosophically, the pragmatists are
pluralists. According to them there are as many words as human beings. The
ultimate reality is not one but many. Everyone searches truth and aim of life
according to his experiences.
2. EMPHASIS ON CHANGE-
The
pragmatists emphasize change. The world is a process, a constant flux. Truth is
always in the making. The world is ever progressing and evolving. Therefore,
everything here is changing.
3. UTILITARIANISM-
Pragmatists
are utility is the test of all truth and reality. A useful principle is true.
Utility means fulfillment of human purposes. The results decide the good and
evil of anything, idea, beliefs and acts. Utility means satisfaction of human
needs.
4. CHANGING AIM AND VALUES-
The
aim and values of life change in different times and climes. The old aims and
values, therefore, cannot be accepted as they are. Human life and the world is
a laboratory in which the aims and values are developed.
5. INDIVIDUALISM-
Pragmatists
are individualists. They put maximum premium upon freedom in human life.
Liberty goes with equality and fraternity. Everyone should adjust to his
environment.
6. EMPHASIS ON SOCIAL ASPECTS-
Since
man is a social animal therefore, he develops in social circumstances. His
success is success in society. The aim of education is to make him successful
by developing his social personality.
7. EXPERIMENTALISM-
Pragmatists
are experimentalists. They give more importance to action than ideas. Activity
is the means to attain the end of knowledge. Therefore, one should learn by
doing constant experimentation which is required in every field of life.
PRAGMATISM AND EDUCATIVE PROCESS
Activity lies at the centre of all educative
process. The basis of all teaching is the activity of the child, says Foster.
Every continuous- experience or activity is educative and all education, is
fact, resides in having such experience. But continuous growth in experience is
not the whole education. Education is something more. It is a constant
reorganizing or reconstructing of experience. Pragmatism approaches the
problems of education from the ‘progressivits’ view point “progress implies
change. Change further implies novelty”, so education cannot be conceived of as
acquired once for all. Problem solving is at the core of all education. The
educative process thus becomes empirical, experimental, and piecemeal: in a
word pragmatic.
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
1. EDUCATION AS LIFE-
Pragmatists
firmly believe that old and traditional education is dead and lifeless.
Education is a continuous re-organizing, reconstructing and integrating the
experience and activities of race. They want to conserve the worthwhile culture
of the past, think out the solutions to meet the new situations and then
integrate the two. Real knowledge can be gained only be activity, experiments
and real life experiences.
2. EDUCATION AS GROWTH-
Thus
education will be useful if it brings about the growth and development of the
individual as well as the society in which he lives. Education is meant for the
child and child is not meant for education and child is not empty bottle to be
filled up by outside knowledge. Each child is born with inherent capacities,
tendencies and aptitudes which are drawn out and developed by education. One of
the aims of education is to develop all the inherent capacities of the child to
the fullest extent.
3. EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL PROCESS-
To
pragmatism, man is a social being. He gains more and more knowledge through
personal experiences than he gets from books. According to pragmatism, the
education of the child should be through the medium of society so that develops
in him socially desirable qualities which promote his welfare and happiness.
John Dewey rightly speaks out – Education is the social continuity of life.
4. EDUCATION A CONTINUOUS
RESTRUCTURING OF EXPERIENCE-
Education
is a process of development. Knowledge is gained by experiences and
experiments, conducted by the learner himself. One exercise leads to another
and so on and the area of knowledge is widened by the child. The process of
reconstruction of experience goes on and leads to adjustment and development of
personality. For pragmatists educational process has no end beyond itself. In
addition to the individual it is continuous reorganizing restructuring and
integrating the experience and activities of the race.
5. EDUCATION THE RESPONSIBILITY
OF STATE-
Education
is the birth right of each individual and may not be within the right of the
individual, so the state should shoulder the responsibility. The refusal of the
state to do so may not lead the nation to suffering. It is for the state to
make the child capable and confident to meet the problems and challenges of
life successfully.
AIMS AND PRAGMATISM
Pragmatists do not believe in any
pre-conceived aims of education. Aims cannot be conceived of as final, fixed
and immutable. Aims arise out of the ongoing experience and should lie wholly
within the child’s experience. Living as we do, in a changing world with an
uncertain and shifting future, human experience is prone to change. And so the
need to reshape our aims to meet the needs of such a dynamic environment as
ours has become where the invention of every machine means a new social
revolution. So it has been said that education has no aims. “Continuing
education “, says a UNESCO booklet, “has become a necessity in almost every
field of life from housekeeping to atomics”. Education is a lifelong process
and not as something to discipline the recalcitrant person in to conformity
with the pre-existing truth. The pupil should be able to, as they say, ’thing
through’ the problems. Education for Dewey is a process of individual growth and
development. But “growth itself“, says Brubacher “has no end beyond further
growth”. In other words, he goes on to say “education is its own end”.
Education means more education.
PRAGMATISM AND CURRICULUM
In the field of curriculum
development, the following principles have been prescribed by pragmatists.
1.
PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY-
According to this principle, only those
subjects, activities and experiences should be included in the curriculum which
are useful to the present needs of the child and also meet the future
expectations of adult life as well. As such Language, physical well-being,
physical training, Geography, History, Science, Agriculture and Home science
for girls should be included in the curriculum.
2.
PRINCIPLE OF INTEREST-
According to this principle, only those
activities and experiences where in the child takes interest should be included
in the curriculum. According to John Dewey these interests are of four
varieties namely- (1) interest in conversation, (2) interest in investigation,
(3) interest in construction and (4) interest in creative expression. Keeping
these varieties of interests in view, at the primary stage, the curriculum
should included Reading, Writing, Counting, Art, Craft-work, Natural science
and other practical work of simple nature.
3.
PRINCIPLE OF EXPERIENCE-
The third principle of pragmatic curriculum
is the child’s activity, vocation and experience. All these three should be
closely integrated. The curriculum should consist of such varieties of learning
experiences which promote original thinking and freedom to develop social and
purposeful attitudes.
4.
PRINCIPLE OF INTEGRATION-
Pragmatic
curriculum deals with the integration of subjects and activities. According to
pragmatism knowledge is one unit. Pragmatists want to construct flexible,
dynamic and integrated curriculum which aids the developing child and the
changing society more and more as the needs, demands and situation require.
PRAGMATISM AND METHODS OF
TEACHING
The whole emphasis of method of teaching in pragmatism is on child, not
the book, or the teacher or the subject. The dominant interest of the child is
“to do and to make”. The method should be flexible and dynamic. It must be
adaptable and modifiable to suit
the nature of the subject matter and potentiality of the students. The
pragmatist’s curriculum provides for creative and purposeful activities in the
teaching- learning process. Pragmatists regard school is a’ miniature of
society’ where child gets real experiences to act and behave according to his
interests, aptitudes and capacities.
Project method is a
contribution of pragmatist philosophy in education. According to Kilpatrick “a project is a whole hearted purposeful
activity carried out in a social environment”. The child learns by doing says
John Dewey. All learning must come as a product of action. Learning by doing
makes a person creative, confident and co-operative. They also emphasize the
discovery and enquiry methods. The method like problem solving, play-way,
experimental and laboratory techniques which follow the principle of learning
by doing can be used according to pragmatic view.
TEACHER
Pragmatism regards teacher as a
helper, guide and philosopher. The chief function of pragmatic teacher is to
suggest problems to his pupils and to stimulate them to find by themselves, the
solutions, which will work. The teacher must provide opportunities for the
natural development of innate qualities of children. His main task is to
suggest problems to his pupils and to guide them to find out solutions.
DISCIPLINE
To utilize the interest of the pupil is the basis of discipline here.
The teacher and pupils attack a problem jointly. Teacher’s role is that of a
guide and a director; it is the pupil who acts, learning this becomes a
cooperative venture- a joint enterprise. Pursuit of common purposes enforces it
own order. Education becomes a social process of sharing between the members of
the various groups and all are equal partners in the process. That is no
rewards also there are no placing for the martinet so any punishments. The
discipline proceeds from the life of the school as a whole.
CONTRIBUTIONS OF PRAGMATISM TO EDUCATION
·
Pragmatism provides definite aims of education. The student is
prepared to live in society and learn skills and attitudes. Which are required
of him to live as a useful member of society?
·
The teaching methods are based on learning by doing. The project
method is the contribution of pragmatism to modern education.
·
Pragmatism encourages a democratic way of learning through purposeful and
cooperative projects and
activities.
·
Utility in the educative process is the first criterion. The
school is expected to provide learning and experiences that are useful.
·
Education is not bound to tradition. Pragmatic philosophers advise
us to test everything through our own experience.
·
The teacher has to play a very challenging role in the educative
process under pragmatism and he has to be very alert and watchful.
DEMERITS OF PRAGMATISM
1. OPPOSITION TO ETERNAL TRUTHS
Pragmatism
is opposed to pre-determined truth. According to it, truth changes according to
a change in circumstances, times and places and is created by the consequences
of our actions and experiences. Pragmatists hold that if the results of an
activity are satisfying, then it is true otherwise not.
2. OPPOSITION OF PRE-DETERMINED IDEAS AND VALUES-
This
emphasizes that ideals and values are man-made and change according to changes
in circumstances, times and places. But all noble things have entered into this
human world by the efforts of those great persons who were inspired by the
great ideals namely- truth, beauty and goodness.
3. NO PRE-DETERMINED AIMS OF EDUCATION
There
are no set and pre determined aims of education as well. In the absence of
definite aims of education, all educational plans and efforts may go astray and
achieve nothing.
4. NEGATIONS OF SPIRITUAL VALUES-
Pragmatists
deny the existence of spiritual values. Negligence of spiritual value is a
great blunder. Without developing spiritual values achieving human welfare,
peace and satisfaction is simply to cry for the moon.
5. OPPOSITION OF INTELLECTUALITY-
Pragmatists
believe that a man’s intelligence is subservient to his innate tendencies. This
makes him only an animal.
6. NEGATION OF POST
Agmatists,
emphasizing only the present and future, and neglects the past. Without the
knowledge of past one cannot understand the present and without knowing the
present thoroughly nothing can be predicted for the future.
7. DIFFICULTY IN THE CONSTRUCTION
OF CURRICULUM
Pragmatism
emphasize that all knowledge is to be gained from experiences of life.
Selecting a project and construction of curriculum to gain all knowledge from
life experiences is very difficult.
8. PRAGMATISM IS A METHOD ONLY
Unlike
other philosophical doctrines, pragmatism does not lay down any aims, ideals
and values of life to be pursued by human beings. Hence, pragmatism cannot be
termed as a philosophy of life.
MERITS OF PRAGMATISM
1. CONSTRUCTION OF PROJECT METHOD
In
the field of methods of teaching, pragmatism has given birth to project method.
This method, a child indulging in various creative activities, is able to solve
many problems which cater to his natural progress and development.
2. IMPORTANCE OF CHILD-
Opposing
bookish knowledge and formal education, pragmatism lays great stress upon the
development of child’s individuality by his own efforts.
3. EMPHASIS ON ACTIVITY
Pragmatism
emphasizes upon activity. The principle of learning by doing is the main
contribution of pragmatism
4. FAITH IN APPLIED LIFE-
Pragmatism
emphasizes the practical life of child. Pragmatic education prepares the child
for future life in a very effective manner.
5. SOCIAL AND DEMOCRATIC EDUCATION-
Pragmatism develops in the child love for
democratic values and social efficiency which bring harmonious adjustment and
development of personality.
6. INFUSION OF NEW LIFE IN EDUCATION-
Pragmatism
has revolutionized the process of education to a very great extent. This has
infused a new life and zest in education.
CONCLUSION
The foregoing discussion shows that pupil’s
immediate experiences, felt needs and purposes play a prominent part in the
determination of educational programmes and policies. This confirms the faith
in the worth and improvability of individuals. Pragmatism puts emphasis on free
flow of ideas, spirit of inquiry of investigation and discussion. Pragmatism
upholds the supreme value of man and prescribes freedom of thinking,
experimenting and experiencing for him. Not only this, it lays emphasis upon
flexibility, utility and adjustment in all fields of human activity promoting
the continuous development of individual and society to the fullest extent.
Pragmatic philosophy is a
practical philosophy, having no fixed or absolute standards. Man always creates
new values and education should help him in doing so. Being practical and
utilitarian school of philosophy, pragmatism has influenced education to the
maximum extent. It has tried overcoming the limitations of other schools like
idealism and naturalism and has influenced world in a great dealREAD ALSO :
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